#31-38 pg. 235, #1-10 pg. 258

31.  A) Propane, C3H8

B) Pentane, C5H12

32. The suffix -ane indicates that hexane is an alkane.

33. Yes, each of these molecules are isomers of each other. They all consist of 5 carbon atoms and 12 hydrogen atoms, but appear to be different because of the arrangement of atoms. These three molecules are structured isomers of one another, for they have identical molecular formulas but different arrangements of atoms.

34. 

35. Butane (C4H10) is the shortest-chain alkane that can demonstrate isomerism- alkanes with four or more carbon atoms can be demonstrated as straight-chain structures, branched-chain structures, and ring structures.

36. Both representations are correct because their different arrangements of atoms do not change the identical molecular formulas of the molecule; this would make the molecules structural isomers of each other.

37. A) 

B) The branched-chain molecule would have the lower boiling point. Since the straight-chain molecule has greater molecule-to-molecule contact, it has a stronger intermolecular force than the branched-chain molecule, resulting in a higher boiling point.

38. a. A short, straight chain would have a lower boiling point because of decreased molecule-to-molecule contact than the longer boiling point. The bonds of this chain would be easier to break than a longer straight chain.

b. A short, branched chain would have the lower boiling point. Although the bonds of a branched chain are easier to break than those of a straight chain, it would be more difficult to break more molecular bonds within the long chain, resulting in a higher boiling point.

c. A short, branched chain would have a lower boiling point. Straight chains have stronger intermolecular forces that hold together each molecule in contact; where as bonds between branched chains are more breakable due to the decreased intermolecular molecular forces between them.

Page 258 #1-10

1. Petroleum is sometimes considered "buried sunshine" because as a fossil fuel, it originates from biomolecules of prehistoric plants and animals. The energy released by burning petroleum represents energy originally captured from sunlight by these prehistoric green plants during photosynthesis; "buried sunshine".

2. a. Potential energy is energy of position, or stored energy ready to be released. An example of potential energy is the energy within an unreleased winded up spring toy.

b. Kinetic energy is energy related to motion. A car rolling down a hill is an example of kinetic energy.

3. Chemical energy, another form of potential energy, is stored within the bonds in chemical compounds. When an energy-releasing reaction takes place, the bonds break and reactant atoms reorganize to form new bonds and release energy. If more energy is released than originally started with, the reaction is exothermic, but if less energy is released than originally started with, the reaction is endothermic.

4. A molecule of butane has more potential energy; it has more carbons than methane and a higher boiling point than methane. The bonds of butane are harder to break than the bonds of methane, resulting its higher potential energy.

5. a. Potential energy

b. Potential energy

c. Kinetic energy

d. Potential energy

e. Kinetic energy

6. Energy is required to break chemical bonds because it is what causes the reactant bonds to break and reorganize to form new bonds and energy.

7. a. Exothermic energy is released than is required to begin the chemical reaction.

b. Endothermic energy is required to crack large hydrocarbon molecules than is released.

c. Endothermic takes more energy to digest a candy bar than the energy released after digestion.

8. The product of a burning candle yields more energy than the energy to begin the reaction with an unlit candle. Since more energy is let off than required to begin the reaction, burning a candle is an exothermic reaction.

9. 

10. The law of conservation of energy states that energy is neither created nor destroyed in any mechanical, physical, or chemical processes.

1. A hydrocarbon is a molecular compound that only contains atoms of hydrogen and carbon.

3. Since petroleum is not only a nonrenewable resource, but a very versatile material that is used both as fuel that can be converted to gasoline. Also it can be used to produce heat.

5. Oil is crude because it is pumped from underground and cannot be used in its natural state without some degree of refinement.

6. a. 0.11 x 20,000,000= 2,200,000 barrels b. 0.89 x 20,000,000= 17,800,000 barrels 

7. Heating and cooking fuel, petrochemicals, heavy furnace oil, diesel fuel oil, lubricating oil and grease, heavy oils and wax, petroleum jelly.

8 a. Water bottle, sports equipment, clothing, artificial limbs. 
b. A water bottle can be made out of aluminum, clothing can be made of cotton, and artificial limbs can be made of iron. 

10. a. The Middle East
b. Central Asia, Far East, and Australia.

11.a. North America, Central Asia, Far East, and Oceania, Western Europe, and Eastern Europe. b. The Middle East, Africa, and Central and South America.

12.Density can be used to separate two different liquids.

13.Water and acetone would be the easiest to separate from each other because water has the highest boiling point and acetone has the lowest.

14. 16. ? 

17. Light: Aviation gasoline and motor gasoline, kerosene, and refined oils. Intermediate: Gas oil, petrochemicals, heavy furnace oil, and diesel fuel oil.
Heavy: Lubricating oil and grease, heavy oils and wax.

18. The fraction with the highest boiling point range would be removed at the bottom. This is because they are thick  liquids that never vaporize, called bottoms. 

19. Distillation after a fractional distillation. 

20. Methane, pentane , hexane, octane.
The boiling points increase with greater amounts carbon atoms of hydrocarbons.

21. A covalent bond is the sharing of two or more valence electrons between two atoms, allowing both atoms to fill their outer shells completely. 

22. Atoms with filled electrons are stable and tend to be chemically uncreative.

23. Similar to repelling electrons, the dogs pull away from each other, but are still connected by the bond they share with the sock connecting them. 

26. a. A structural formula shows the makeup of a molecule, as well as how high the boiling point is, where as a molecular formula just shows the amount of atoms each element in the formula possesses. b. The structure of a formula shows how strong molecular bonds within the formula is, as well as the boiling point of the formula. 

28.?

29. a. C9H20b. C16H34c. C10H22d. C18H38

30. a. 128gb. 226gc. 142gd. 254g

#1-8 pg. 360

1. Electromagnetic radiation is a broad range of energetic emissions. 

2. Spectrum is a good description of the types of energy found in electromagnetic radiation because spectrum means any of variation of color or object.

3. Visible light is useful in plant photosynthesis, while other forms of electromagnetic radiation are not.

4. a. infrared, ultra-violet, visible
    b. infrared radiation: Causes certain bonded atoms to vibrate more energetically.
        ultraviolet radiation: Potentially can cause a sunburn, and witch ling-term exposure is linked to skin cancer.
        visible radiation: Energizes electrons in some chemical bonds.

5. Ultraviolet light is often used to sterilize chemistry laboratory goggles because it can kill bacteria and destroy viruses.

6. Infrared radiation is absorbed by CO2 H2O molecules in the atmosphere.Visible Radiation is scattered by water, air, and dust. Ultraviolet radiation is absorbed in the stratospheric ozone layer.

7. Solar radiation determines climates and weather, and also powers the hydrologic cycle.

8. Lake water reflects more solar radiation than asphalt because it is a lighter in the color spectrum. Asphalt barely reflects any light.

2SDS #7-13 pg.204

7. An alloy is a solid combination of atoms of two or more metals. 

8. I mainly use steel and gold, steel is used in most kitchenware and cars, and gold you can find in either jewelry like watches or rings.

9.Carbon

10. Fe3C which is steel, is used in most automobiles.

11. Elements that behave as semiconductors are located on the break between metals and nonmetals and metalloids. 

12. Phosphorus (P), arsenic (Ar), aluminum (Al).

13. The primary use of the products of semiconductor technology is the allowance for computers to process digital information. A few examples of that are also IPhones.

2SDS #1-6, p. 204

1. An allotrope is a different form of an element that has distinctly different physical or chemical properties. 

2. Phosphorus and Oxygen

3. a. A diamond is the hardest substance known to man and very hard to find which makes it so expensive. Coal is very weak and fragile and cheap,  Pencil lead is made of graphite and is very useful and every day life.
b. They are all allotropes of carbon.
c. The structure of the carbon atom is very unique and hard to find, which also relates to diamonds because they are very expensive and difficult to find.

4. Engineered materials are materials developed by scientists and engineers to enhance natural materials through manufacturing methods that carefully control the microstructure of the materials.

5. Ceramics are very durable and have very high melting points and are extremely strong at high temperatures. The only problem with ceramics is, if they are exposed to high tempuratures then suddenly to cold tempurature. With that, they are easily broken.


6. Plastics can be created to be either soft or hard.  Plastic can also be made into optical fibers, which replace copper wires.

2SCS #13-21 pg. 181

13. a. 6 moles

      b. 5 moles

      c. 5 moles

14. a. 17 moles

      b. 100%

      c. 50%

      d. 415 g

15. 16 x 2 = 32
      32/44 x 100 = 72%

16. a.87%

      b.53%

      c.58%

17. a. 68.3%

      b. 10%

      c. 25%

18. Recycling is when an object is taken and reshaped or used to create another object. Reusing is when one object is used multiple times.

19. a. water, plants, soil, air

      b. platinum, gold, silver, coal

20. a. reusing

      b. recycling

      c. reusing

21. ?

2SCS #1-12 pg. 180

1. The law of conservation of matter is that matter is neither created nor destroyed.

2. Scientific law summarizes what has been learned by careful observation of nature.

3. Expressions such as "using up" and "throwing away" are misleading because the law of conservation of matter, molecules can be converted and decomposed by chemical processes.

4.a. Not balanced.

Reactant side: Sn, 1, H, 1, F, 1
Product side: Sn, 1, H, 2, F; 2
b. Not balanced. 
Reactant side: Si, 1, O, 2, C, 1
Product side: Si, 1, O, 1, C, 2
c. Balanced. 
Reactant side: Al, 1, O, 3, H, 6, Cl, 3
Product side: Al, 1, O, 3, H, 6, Cl, 3

5.a. hydrogen gas is 3.
b.  NH3 gas is 3. 
c. nitrogen gas is 1. 

6.?

7. a. 1 Ca3(PO4)2 + 3 H2SO4 --> 2 H3PO4 + 3 CaSO4

b. 2 C8H18 + 25 O2 --> 16 CO2 + 18 H2O

8. a. Yes. 
Reactant side: Na, 2, S, 1, O, 4, K, 2, Cl, 1
Product side: Na, 2, S, 1, O, 4, K, 2, Cl, 1
b. No 
c. 1 Na2SO4 + 2 KCl --> 2 NaCl + 1 K2SO4

9. it would take 400,000 seconds to spend one mole of dollars.

10.a. 32g
b. 48g
c. 100g
d. 58g
e. 180g

11. Although copper and sodium have different masses, volumes, and densities, the weight of each atom per mole remains the same. 

12.a. 1 atom.
b. 0.5 atoms. 
c. 0.1 atoms. 
d.  0.03 atoms.

2SBS 9-22 pg. 51

9. Active metals are more reactive than less active metals. Due to this, more active metals are more likely to combine and form compounds with other elements.

10. Silver would have been the easiest to process because of its lack of reactivity.

11. Since most metals are more reactive than metals like silver, gold, and platinum, things are easily reactive and pick up other minerals aswell.

12. a. A reaction between calcium metal with chromium chloride would more likely occur. Calcium metal is more reactive than chromium metal.

13. b. Because zinc is much more reactive than silver,by putting zinc into a silver solution, it would cause a reaction.

14. a. Since iron is more reactive than lead, stirring a solution of lead nitrate with an iron spoon would cause it to dissolve
b. Pb2+(aq) + Fe(s) -> Pb(s) + Fe2+(aq)

15.Oxidation is the loss of one or more electrons that causes a metal to become a cation. Reduction is the gain of one or more electrons that causes a cation to balance its electrical charge.

16.a. Au3+ + 3e- --> Au
b. V --> V4+ + 4e-
c. Cu+ --> Cu2+ + 1e-

17. a. reduction.
b. oxidation.
c. reduction. 

18.a. Zn2+ has been oxidized. Zn loses two electrons.
b. Ni has been reduced. Ni^2+ gains two electrons.
c. The reducing agent in this reaction is Zn. 

19.a. K^+ has been oxidized. K loses an electron.
b. Hg has been reduced. Hg^2+ gains two electrons.
c. The oxidizing agent in this reaction is Hg^2+. 

20.a.?
b.?

21. a. Electrometallurgy is the use of an electrical current to supply electrons to metal ions, this reducing them. 
b. Pyrometallurgy is the treatment of metals and their ores with heat, as in a blast furnace.
c. Hydrometallurgy is the treatment of ores and other metal-containing materials with reactants in water solution. 

22. a. Electrometallurgy. 
b. Pyrometallurgy.

2SAS Questions #26-28 29-34 p.132, 2SBS Questions #1-8 p.151

26. Non-metal elements are more likely to lose electrons.

27. Its at the ionic charge that is wanted.

28. a. Na - Cation

      b. Ca - Cation

      c. F - Anion

      d. Cu - Cation

      e. O - Anion

      f. Li - Cation

      g. Sn - Anion

      h. I - Anion

29. They are similar because of the difference of two electrons

30. 205

31. a. Rust is chemical change and paint is technically a physical change.

      b. Combustion is a chemical change and the boiling point is a physical change

      c. HCl and copper chloride are chemical changes and warer evaporation is a physical change

32. a. Bromine
      b. Silicon

34. Both Cobalt and Argon have a larger atomic mass than nickel.

2SBS Questions #1-8 p.151

1. a. The atmosphere is made up of nitrogen,neon,argon,and oxygen

    b. The lithosphere is made of metal - bearing ores and petroleum
    c. The hydrosphere is made up of dissolved minerals and water

3. a. Mexico
    b. Japan
    c. China

4. China

2SAS questions 13-25

13. a. horizontal

      b. family of elements

14. Hydrogen - H

      Potassium - K

15. a. Column VIII

      b. Noble gases boil at low temperatures

      c. Noble gases are gases at room temperature

16. a. MgF

      b. GaP

17. K - Approximately 60 degrees celsius

18. I would expect the boiling point to be higher.

19. a. C (Carbon)

      b. N (Nitrogen)

      c, d. 20 protons, 20 electrons

      e, f. Pt, 78 protons
      g, h. 92, 92

20. On Paper

21. A lead atom loses two electrons with 2+

22. a. C-12, N- 13, Ca - 41, Pt - 195, U - 238
      b. Carbon has two isotopes

23. The protons electrons and neutrons are not known.

24. An electron has a lighter mass

25. a, b. 12, 12
      c, d. 12, 13
      e, f. 12, 14

2SAS Questions #1-12 p.130

1. a. physical property

    b. chemical property

    c. chemical property

    d. physical property

2. a. physical property

    b. physical property

    c. chemical property

    d. chemical property

3. a. chemical property

    b. chemical property

    c. physical property

    d. physical property

4. a. physical property

    b. chemical property

    c. physical property

    d. chemical property

5. a. a physical change  due to the color change with it's reaction with oxygen.

    b. a chemical change because the batteries have lost their charge

    c. a physical change because the appearance is changing

    d. a chemical change because the dressing is separated

6. 

The heat breaks the sugar into glucose and fructose. The glucose and fructose form a polymer chain to create the brown hardening on the outside of the cookie. The butter gives the cookie a lighter texture by restricting the amount of gluten. The ingredients in the egg help to keep the cookies shape. 

7. a. metal

    b. metal

    c. nonmetal

    d. metal

8. a. metal

    b. metalloid

    c. nonmetal

    d. nonmetal

9. Arsenic - As

    Polonium - Pi

10. a. Iodine would shatter

      b. Zirconium would not change

      c. Phosphorous would shatter

      d. Nickel would not change

11. Nonmetals have have no electrical conductivity

12. Metals in coins are durable, can be melted down to produce copper, and the metals in coins are easily found.

What caused the fish death

Scenario 1:

In May, June, July of every year there is an increase in the amount of rainfall. However, this year in August there was a sudden change in the amount of water that appeared. There was much higher water flow due to the abnormal amounts of rainfall. The fish died in scenario 1 because of the excess in pesticides. The reason this is weird is because there was no un usual amount of rainfall, water flow, or dissolved oxygen in the month of August. The pesticides were present in September and it too a week to kill the fish in August. This is because it took a week for the dangerous amount of pesticides to flow into the water.

Scenario 2:
In May, June, and July there is still excessive amounts of rainfall appearing in these months. Because of these huge amounts of water, this caused much of the nitrate to flow into the water.  What killed the fish in scenario 2 was the extreme amount of nitrate. This could have causes the fish kill because nitrate could prevent oxygen from being carried throughout the fish's body causing bubbles to occur in their blood.

1SDS 1-9,18-22

1.

2.

A.Evaporation of water vapor: removes nearly all dissolved substances.

B. Bacterial action: changes dissolved substances into simple compounds. 

C. Filtration through sand and gravel: removes nearly all unwanted matter.

3. They both remove suspended particles in the water.

4. They calcium oxides basic property neutralizes the acidity of the water.

5. Sometimes 1ppm of fluoride is used due to the risk of tooth decay.

6. Chlorinated water is far healthier due to the fact that it has helped prevent from waterborne diseases.

7. Chlorine in water can react with organic compounds made by decomposing animal and plant water to form substances that can be harmful to humans.

8. Water from a clear mountain stream may require chlorination to make it safe for drinking due to various types of bacterias found on the ground or other harmful substances that the water may have picked up on the way down the mountain.

9. Charcoal filters: they remove most organic compounds from water. or Sand Filtration, which  removes nearly all unwanted matter.

18. Due to evaporation being the first step of the hydrological cycle, none of the following steps could happen because evaporation is the starting point.

19. Water evaporates as vapor (Gas), forms into water droplets in clouds (liquid), and falls as either rain water (liquid), snow, or hail (solids). 

20. The EPA is recognizing the difficulties of using alternatives and accepts the foreign substances in extremely low concentrations. 

21. 

22. 

a. 1 ppm fluoride.

b. 7 ppm fluoride.c. 365 ppm fluoride.

1SCS #20-27,33,35

20.a. a tomato.
     b. pure water.
     c. milk of magnesia. 21. Since there is a tenfold difference between each number on the pH scale, a solution at pH 4.0 is 100 times more acidic than a solution at pH 2.0.

22.1) fish egg development impaired, reproduction harmed.2) increased concentrations of metal ions in natural waters by leaching metal ions from 3) dissolves organic materials, such as scales on fish. 

23. A polar molecule is a molecule with an uneven distribution of electrical charge; each molecule has a partial positive region at one end and a partial negative region at the other end. A nonpolar molecule's distribution of electrical charge is equal throughout, meaning it is balanced at both ends of the molecule. 

24. Ethanol and water are both polar substances, so, to dissolve a nonpolar substance,one would use a nonpolar substance such as, lamp oil. 

25. Since water is an extremely attractive polar molecule, the positive and negative charges of NaCl are "pulled" by the charges of the water molecules. Cooking oil on the other hand, is nonpolar. NaCl doesnt dissolve in cooking oil.

26. Polar substances dissolve in polar solvents and nonpolar substances dissolve in nonpolar solvents. 

27. In order to dissolve the grease, the dishes would need to be washed with a solution composed of nonpolar molecules.

33. a. Nonpolar materials are likely to be found in these cleaners.
b. Using these cleaners would be more effective than washing with water because since water   molecules are polar, they would not dissolve the grease off of the mechanics' hands. 

35. Since fluorine has the highest electronegativity of any element, it would make up the negative end of the polar bond.. Since hydrogen has less negative charges than fluorine, it would have the partial positive charge of the polar bond.